If Your Time to You is Worth Savin’

* This article first appeared in the June 2022 issue of Bee Culture Magazine. *

Recently, a friend of mine suggested that I watch “an old but prophetic” movie titled, “Soylent Green”. The film, loosely based on Harry Harrison’s 1966 science fiction novel Make Room! Make Room! features a young Charlton Heston playing the lead role of Detective Sergeant Thorn. Eerily, the movie is set during the year 2022, in New York city, population “40 million people”. I would bet that when Harrison penned this work of fiction some 56 years ago, he thought this number of 40 million to be overly inflated, an absurd amount of people. Or didn’t he?

According to the most recent numbers provided by the Untied States Census Bureau, New York city had a reported population of 8,804,190 people in April 2020. This was just before the Covid-19 pandemic had fully sunk its teeth into not just our bodies, but our economy, livelihood, bank account, and most importantly, our spirit. At the time I am composing this article (February, 2022), New York city has reported a total of 39,011 deaths and a staggering 631,000 jobs lost as a result of Covid-19.

As I watched the movie, I certainly felt the prophetic-ness that my friend had alluded to. Staircases full of sleeping vagrants with physically, nowhere else left to go. Everyone appeared uncomfortable and hot, always in a flux of sweat due to the over crowdedness and increased warming of our sphere. Most of the fresh produce items that we in the western world take for granted on a daily basis, are the most precious commodities in Harrison’s projection of 2022. Fruits, vegetables, …beef, all available in limited quantities and are only attainable by the most elite. The bulk of the population, can only afford to sustain on a series of man-made, food items that provide just a semblance of nutrition, while large corporations and government profits. Sounding more prophetic by the paragraph, isn’t it?

So, has it already begun?

I try to consume a healthy, whole foods diet, and I can personally attest that since the pandemic, my American dollar goes nowhere near as far as it once did just 2 years ago. To add insult to injury, Covid also provided an opportunity for industry to price gouge consumers as a result of mandatory governmental shutdowns, supply chain issues, ships stuck at ports, etc. The same number of fresh produce items now costs me on average $80 - $120 more then what I was paying just 2 years ago. Yet my wages have stayed the same. Bring on that overly processed, fast food dollar menu!

In a documentary that debuted in January titled “The Green Planet”, renown naturalist Sir David Attenborough warns, “the world, it depends upon plants and we treat them with so little thought, so little care, and exterminate them without little thought or little care. And we will pay the price.” Attenborough continues, “We caused it; our kind of industrialization is one of the major factors in producing this change in climate. So, we have a moral responsibility even if we didn’t cause it, we would have a moral responsibility to do something about it.” Despite being 95 years young, and living his life day-by-day, Attenborough still feels the responsibility to utilize his worldwide platform to help garner attention to this impending crisis that will begin to affect all of us with more regularity in the coming decades. On biodiversity, Attenborough offers, “it’s never been more important for us to understand the effects of biodiversity loss, of how it is that we ourselves are responsible for it.”

As beekeepers, we are all too familiar with the negative impacts that increased industry has had on our bees, yet rarely contemplate it any further than how it affects our own operation or wallet. The trial is over and the verdict is in. The loss of biodiversity around the world, and especially the reduced biodiversity of insect populations, poses extremely serious consequences down the road for us. Earths conqueror.

The Staggering Loss of Biodiversity

In December 2020, Nature magazine published a report that found that human-made materials now exceeded the mass of all living things on the planet. Let that sink in. The concrete, steel, plastics, and other man-made materials now physically weigh more than the people, plants, bacteria, and animals that with whom we share the planet.

One of the most obvious effects of our massive ecological footprint is the staggering loss of biodiversity that we now see. The recently-created Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) has been given the task of performing regular and timely assessments of knowledge on biodiversity and ecosystem services. According to the IPBES chair Robert Watson, “the health of ecosystems on which we and all other species depend is deteriorating more rapidly than ever. We are eroding the very foundations of our economies, livelihoods, food security, health and quality of life worldwide.”

More specifically, the IPBES reports that well over one million animal and plant species are now threatened with extinction, many within the coming decades. Though species have gone extinct throughout human history, the scale of the threat of extinction has never been higher than today. The report goes on to find that the average abundance of native species in most major land-based habitats has fallen by at least 20% in the past century.

Unfortunately, many people associate this drastic loss of biodiversity with the disappearance of exotic species of plants or animals on the other side of the world. The biologist trying to spot the elusive and nearly extinct Guatemalan Small Eared Shrew. We fail to realize that a decline in biodiversity could have palpable and realistic effects on our own livelihoods. This selective form of naivete’ is self-serving and affords us the luxury of not taking action. Of not implementing changes to our daily lives that would affect the greater good.

Of course, biodiversity is of fundamental importance for all of life on earth. Besides creating more resilient and vibrant ecosystems, biodiversity is at the core of ecological life support. The millions of unseen species of plants, bacteria, fungi, and insects combine to create the conditions for life upon which we depend. Oxygen to breathe, clean water to drink, pollination of plants for the crops we grow, pest control, wastewater treatment, and thousands of other “ecosystem services” all depend on the complex interactions of bio-diverse ecosystems.

The Underappreciated Importance of Insects

Insect populations around the world are similarly affected by the rising threat of species extinction. According to one recent estimate, more than 40% of all insects are declining worldwide with one third of insect species being placed on the endangered list. This data suggests that the rate of decline for ALL insects is at least 2.5% annually. While we may worry about white rhinos and other emblematic species that are in danger of extinction, insects face extinction rates that are 8 times higher than vertebrates!

So, what would a world without insects look like? For one, the amount of food that we could produce would be greatly reduced. The USDA finds that “three-fourths of the world's flowering plants and about 35 percent of the world's food crops depend on animal pollinators to reproduce.” A significant loss of pollinator insects would severely affect the production of crops such as apples, almonds, avocados, cucumbers, onions, and hundreds of other common foods. Even without complete extinction, the reduced pollination rates of these plants due to drops in insect population would lead to lower seed or fruit set, lower plant regeneration rates and other, cascading effects on other animal species that rely on plants and their products for food.

Insects also play an important role in other vital ecological functions including pest control, decomposition, and maintenance of wildlife species.

Native Pollinator Loss in the Midwest

One of the major causes of the massive drop in insect populations around the world (often referred to as the “Insect Apocalypse”) is the increasing usage of herbicides, pesticides, fungicides, and other synthetic agricultural chemicals. A 2019 study determined that America’s agricultural landscape is now 48 times more toxic to honeybees, and likely other insects, than it was 25 years ago. This landscape toxicity is closely related to the widespread use of neonicotinoid pesticides.

So how much pesticides are we actually using here in the land of the free? In 2007, for example, we collectively sprayed 1.1 billion pounds of pesticides on our lawns, parks, and farm fields, which is almost a quarter of the total worldwide pesticide use. In my home state of Indiana, a recent USDA report finds that “herbicide was used on 99 percent of Indiana's 5.7 million corn acres during 2000 while insecticides were applied to 30 percent of the acreage.”

The toxicity of Indiana’s farm fields is not only leaching into our watersheds and affecting aquatic organisms, but is also directly responsible for the loss of native pollinators in the region. According to Purdue University, the native pollinator communities in Indiana face many threats. During the past 15 years, researchers have documented reduced populations of honey bees, bumble bees, and several butterfly and moth species. While bees are primarily affected by the use of certain types of pesticides, other Indiana insect species are dropping due to loss of habitat. For example, over the past 100 years, the Karner Blue Butterfly (Plebejus melissa samuelis) has seen its population drop by 99%, mostly due to habitat loss and the slow disappearance of Wild Lupine (Lupinus perennis), which is its primary food source.

What Can You Do to Assist Native Pollinator Populations?

The loss of biodiversity, and specifically the drop in native pollinator populations, is an issue that affects all of us. While we may consider installing solar panels or purchasing an electric vehicle as a way to limit carbon emissions that are driving global climate change, most people have no idea how to contribute to the resilience and resurgence of insect populations. To end, I offer a few strategies for supporting and encouraging pollinators and insect populations in general.

•         Plant a pollinator-friendly lawn: Instead of monoculture turf grass that requires an enormous amount of synthetic chemicals that hurt insect populations, consider sowing native wildflower seed for a more beautiful, healthier, and pollinator-friendly lawn.

•         Eliminate pesticide use in your landscape: For both your yard and garden, eliminate all pesticide use, especially neonicotinoids. There are several “biological pest controls” that are extremely effective for gardens and lawns, and are much healthier for both humans and other non-target insects.

•         Extend your flowering season: Planting a diversity of flowering plants and trees can also help increase the food supply for native pollinators. When planning your landscape, consider purchasing flowers, trees, herbs, and other plants that flower throughout the spring, summer, and fall. 

And if you’ve never seen it, pick-up or stream a copy of Soylent Green. There are several other eye-opening scenes in the film that I haven’t touched on here for fear of spoiling the film for those that want to watch it. Some of these things are already occurring and others I fear will soon begin happening if we all just sit idle and trust in our government.

Come gather 'round people, wherever you roam

And admit that the waters around you have grown

And accept it that soon you'll be drenched to the bone

if your time to you is worth savin'

Then you better start swimmin' or you'll sink like a stone

For the times they are a-changin'

- Bob Dylan The Times They Are A-Changin’ (1964)

Great Honey. Greater Cause.

* This article first appeared in the April 2022 issue of Bee Culture Magazine. *

I am a beekeeper, albeit unintentionally. My introduction to apis mellifera is likely similar to that of others born before 1990. During those what seemed like endless, summer days of my youth, it was commonplace to step on a honey bee while running barefoot through your yard. As the helpless, forager bee cast her tiny sting into the underside of my foot, I never would have imagined that roughly thirty years later, I would choose to get stung on a routine basis. Not just stung, I mean STUNG! Right between the eyes kind of stung!

I recall honey bees engorging on the small, white flowers that grew in everyone’s yard. Back then, the Midwest, and a lot of the US was covered in white clover and with the clover, came the bees. But alas, this was a period considered by many to be the “hay day” of commercial beekeeping. Modern-day beekeeping has evolved into a constant toggle between strategy and defense when combating the multitude of evils that await every altruistic forager who dares to leave the hive.

Climate change, broadscale pesticide applications in agriculture, a booming lawn care industry, and rapid declines in natural habitat and forage, currently present severe challenges for the hive organism, and anyone that dares to don a bee suit in 2022. Lest we forget our nemesis, V. destructor!

The long and (the) short of it is this. Pollinators are declining rapidly and forgive me for the overused analogy, but it certainly will take a village of like-minded, unrelenting, forward-thinking individuals to get us out of the red so to speak for the countless checks that we have written at the earth’s expense.

Backgrounds & Beginning with Honey Bees

My entry into beekeeping came after we purchased our farm in February 2017. The farm, located roughly 40 minutes from our primary residence in the suburbs, had been abandoned for the better part of 18 years and contained an heirloom pear orchard. At that time, our primary focus, and still part of our core ethos today was in land restoration and wildlife conservation. Our goals early on were to remove the unsightly, overgrowth of invasives that were choking out the native plants and propagate perennial, food producing shrubs and trees. Ultimately, we hoped to not only re-establish the natives, and develop a functioning, perennial food system, but also provide a welcoming sanctuary for ourselves and the diverse fauna that call this farm home.

Already having an orchard that was producing on site, it seemed fitting to find a local beekeeper and offer up some acreage for them to place hives on in exchange for their mentorship and helping us manage our hives. We found that beekeeper, er... should I say bee-haver and I soon discovered that his definition of beekeeping and mine differed drastically. Ella and I both have backgrounds in biology, and in another life, were quite successful in our work with reptiles and amphibians. Our specific area(s) of focus were with the true, Giant African Bullfrog (P. adspersus) or Pyxie frog as they are commonly referred to and the ever popular, Bearded Dragon lizard (P. vitticeps) to which we played an instrumental role in developing a genetically sound example of a newfound, dominant trait. But I digress.

Through his “mentoring” I learned quickly that his method of keeping bees involved letting them collect as much honey as they could collect throughout the beekeeping season, harvest the entire crop at summers end, and then leave the bees to their own avail in the fall. The following spring, he would head down south, buy more package bees, and repeat the process. Needless to say, nothing felt good about that, not to mention that he was also putting high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) feed on his colonies all season long, thus the bulk of his “honey” crop that he was selling to local retail shops was mostly evaporated and capped HFCS. I would learn that this is an all-too-common practice in the honey industry and one that we vowed to shy away from at all costs with our operation.

What I haven’t touched on yet is that during this time, I completely absorbed myself in everything that is the European honey bee. Honey bee biology, breeding honey bees, queen rearing techniques, making colony increases, honey production, wax rendering, EVERYTHING!! I scoured literature from the 1800’s, sourced publications from overseas, listened to beekeeping podcasts, watched You-Tube videos, etc. After taking in so much information from so many different sources, I quickly realized the relevance of the common beekeeping quote, “Ask 10 beekeepers the same question, get 12 different answers.”

So, now with several thousands of dollars in empty bee equipment and the knowledge that we should have possessed prior to ever purchasing our first bottom board, we started over. We spent the first couple of years amassing queen bees from some of the nation’s top queen producers hailing from climates colder than ours. We knew that in order to have a sustainable apiary, we were going to have to start with exemplary genetics and then slowly impart the traits that were of the utmost importance to us. There is a lot of credence in Aesop’s tortoise. Slow and steady DOES win the race!

So, tortoise we did! Slowly but surely, year after year, we were seeing higher success rates of over wintering colonies and stronger queens coming into each spring. I find myself every year telling Ella, “These are the healthiest bees we’ve ever had!” I know that as beekeepers, we are getting better at our craft as our management techniques, and knowledge base evolves, but I can’t assume all of the credit for having better bees’ season after season. The bees do the bulk of the heavy lifting in our operation, and we are merely there to maintain the beeyards, address problems that arise, and apply treatments as needed.

Those Fluttering Embers of Orange & Black

Shortly after we began clearing out the invasive species that riddled the acreage, something magical happened. Tall, fragrant, rose-colored flowers began to pop up in several of the patches that had been cleared. Not having the taller brush and various sized tree saplings to compete with, the flowers were now able to reach up into the sky and grab the precious solar rays that they so desperately needed. As spring waned to summer, the patches began to hum with life from within.

We worked the sultry, days of summer away and soon were greeted by a frequent visitor to the farm. Around mid-July, we started to see in excess these fluttering embers of orange and black, dancing about the sky. The embers were Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) and like the honey bees of my youth, I too recalled seeing them regularly growing up, but not as much today. A connection perhaps?

The days in the Farmer’s Almanac stacked and by the end of August, there were so many monarchs on the farm, that we were dodging them as we mowed. They frequented the patches of flowers that now broadcasted a constant waft of floral sweetness throughout the sun-beaten fields. One day, as I was cutting along the edge of one of the patches, I saw the most intricately striped, yellow and black caterpillar crawling along the edge of one of the flowers large, waxy leaves. A closer inspection revealed that the caterpillar was munching on the leaf like a diligent farmer harvesting his crop. Left to right, right to left, I watched in disbelief as the cat (butterfly talk for caterpillar) consumed almost the entire leaf in just a few minutes time! Reveling in what I had just witnessed, I decided that it was time to research this flower and see what kind of ecosystem I had unfolding in front of my eyes.

My research quickly yielded that the “flowers” in question, that now grew prolifically in several patches on our farm, was the Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.) plant, the primary host plant to the monarch butterfly here in the Midwest. The tiger striped caterpillar was the monarch’s larval form, and due to a consistent decline in Common milkweed nationwide, the monarch is in serious trouble.

Fate & Honey

We never envisioned ourselves being beekeepers and were as equally blindsided by the impact that monarchs have had on our lives. Fate certainly has a peculiar way of showing itself and when it does, I tend to lean into the momentum. Countless Google searches kept bringing us back to Dr. Orley “Chip” Taylor and the revolutionary work that he and his team were doing at Monarch Watch. Prior to founding Monarch Watch in 1992, Chip ran several colonies of bees himself, and spent twenty-two years working for the Department of Agriculture with “killer bees” in Central and South America.

Monarch Watch is a nonprofit education, conservation, and research program based at the University of Kansas, that focuses on the monarch butterfly, its habitat, and the spectacular fall migration. Their popular, tagging program was launched during their first year, and has turned in to the cornerstone of their operation.

The Monarch Watch Tagging Program is a large-scale, community science project that was initiated to help understand the dynamics of the monarch's spectacular, fall migration through mark and recapture. The tagging process helps to answer questions about the origins of monarchs that reach Mexico, the timing and pace of the migration, mortality during the migration, and changes in their geographic distribution. The tagging process involves applying a pressure-sensitive, adhesive tag with a unique code, to the underside of the monarch’s wing. These lightweight, all-weather tags were designed by Monarch Watch specifically for tagging purposes and do not harm them nor interfere with their flight.

Each fall, more than a quarter of a million tags are distributed by Monarch Watch to thousands of volunteers across North America who tag monarchs as they migrate through their area. These "community scientists" capture monarchs throughout the migration season, record the tag code and date, butterfly’s gender, and geographic location, then apply the tag and release them. At the end of the tagging season, this data is submitted to Monarch Watch and added to their extensive database to be used in further research.

View fullsize

View fullsize

View fullsize

When it came time to harvest our first crops of honey, we decided to piggyback on the nation-wide platform that honey bees were receiving, to try and spread some additional awareness about the not-so-known decline in monarch populations and the milkweed plants that are needed to support them. Being a smaller operation, we can afford to do some of the more labor-intensive things that the larger producers don’t do.

So, we set out to do smaller, seasonal harvests that would mimic the monarch’s life cycle here in the Midwest. Sure, it was an unorthodox approach to traditional honey design and packaging, but any concerns that we had were quickly quelled. The seasonal, 3-part series has been an absolute scream with our audience and the packaging won a Graphic Design USA title in 2019, the first year that it was put into production.

Part of our mission is giving back to and supporting organizations whom we believe strongly in. A portion of all proceeds from the sale of our monarch themed, raw honey is donated annually to Monarch Watch. In addition, we also partnered with them to help spread awareness about the importance of planting milkweed within our local communities. Our “Plant Milkweed Support Monarchs” statement tee’s have been equally successful and has helped generate some additional revenue for Monarch Watch that we otherwise wouldn’t have been able to contribute because of our limited honey production.

Grassland Habitat – A “Sensitive” Subject

Grassland birds are naturally adapted to native grasslands and prairie ecosystems throughout much of North America. While these are of the highest quality and “ideal” nesting habitats, they are now extremely rare and are fading quickly. As our grasslands fade, our resident bird species are forced to overcome and adapt. Nowadays, surrogate grasslands (hayfields, small grain farms, and fallow pastures) provide most of the important nesting habitat for our grassland-nesting birds. Strip habitats (utility right of ways, highway corridors, and field borders) that are maintained in an early successional state also offer valuable nesting and foraging habitats for several species.

Grassland birds rely upon herbaceous cover for natural foraging and nesting behavior. There are many nuances to the individual cover requirements amongst the different species. Some species are area-sensitive and require vast acreages of unbroken grassland habitat for nesting. Others are edge-sensitive, and shy away from fragmented landscapes to which they perceive as threats to them and their nests. As I have touched on in previous posts, the steps that we take as land practitioners that are meant to invite some species can be deterrents to others. What I hope to provide here is a CliffsNotes version of a much broader and highly complicated subject. Who would have thought that grass could be so dense (pun intended)?

Variables to Consider When Developing a Plan

Ask any neighborhood “Randy” who spends hundreds of dollars annually maintaining his chemically laden green turf, and you quickly find out that not all “grass” is created equal. This also applies to native and non-native grasses. The density and height, as well as surrounding land usages all influence the assemblage of birds that occur within a given area. Generally speaking, large, undisturbed plots of grassland habitat is more desirable and provides the most diverse grouping of grassland bird species. The expansive area allows birds to fulfill most of their courtship, nesting, brood-rearing, feeding, and leisure behavior with the added security requirements they prefer during nesting season. In addition, the larger habitat will also provide winter and migratory cover for many species.

Adequate cover of undisturbed grassland is among the greatest factors affecting grassland bird populations, and the continued loss and conversion of grassland breeding and nesting habitat remains the largest threat to the future of many of our grassland birds. Preserving existing and properly designing new grassland communities will help to maintain current species that are in decline. With proper management, local grassland bird populations will increase, and populations of other wildlife species will benefit from these same habitats.

Since hundreds or thousands of fallow acres aren’t lying in wait, it is up to us to think outside of the box and look for ways to improvise and work with what we do have available. Like pocket prairies for pollinators, the same approach can be taken with several of our grassland and early successional bird species.

Small Victories – Winning with “Edge-Sensitive” Species

As we have already established, most grassland species prefer large acreages of unfragmented habitat. Fragmentation in respect to land use is defined as the existence of a number of spatially separate plots of land which are managed singly. Typically, these smaller, isolated plots with heavily wooded edges have limited potential to support grassland birds. Interspersion (diversify in intervals) of various types of grasslands will maximize habitat quality for some species, however, interspersion of grassland habitat with woody vegetation or other land usage that would fragment the area can be detrimental to others.

Edge-sensitive grassland birds are those with the lowest tolerance for fragmented habitats and are typically grassland dependent when it comes to nesting behavior. When grasslands are fragmented, many grassland birds are subjected to nest predation from crows, blue jays, skunks, raccoons, opossums, foxes, and you guessed it, domestic cats.

Grassland birds that are edge-sensitive include the Upland Sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda), Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), and Savannah (Passerculus sandwichensis) and Henslow’s (Centronyx henslowii) sparrows. The Eastern Meadowlark (Sturnella magna) and Grasshopper Sparrow (Ammodramus savannarumare) are moderately sensitive to habitat fragmentation. Grassland birds that are tolerant to an abundance of edge include the Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), American Goldfinch (Spinus tristis), Vesper (Pooecetes gramineus), Field (Spizella pusilla), and Song (Melospiza melodia) sparrows, Dickcissel (Spiza americana), and Common Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas).

On landscapes where intensive row crop agriculture is the dominant land use, we can design strip habitats which are extremely important not only for grassland birds but for other wildlife as well. Grassland bird assemblages will vary with the physical habitat structure and seasonal disturbance patterns (i.e., crop planting & harvesting).

Size Matters – “Area-Sensitive” Species

Many “area-sensitive” grassland bird species require a certain amount of habitat to be present, usually in contiguous patches or unbroken blocks, before individuals will use a given site. Estimates of the minimum size of suitable nesting and breeding habitat required to support breeding populations of grassland birds vary greatly amongst species. If your goal is to support a wide array of grassland-nesting bird species within a given area, then contiguous grassland blocks of at least 500 acres will provide the greatest potential. However, smaller grassland blocks provide viable habitat patches for many grassland bird species. A general rule may be to maximize the size and interconnectedness of grassland habitat patches available, while conducting management actions that maximize the habitat quality within the smaller patches.

Area-sensitive species prefer treeless areas because trees provide shelter for predators. A familiar nemesis of the suburbs, the Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) is also common in the countryside, parasitizing nests along wooded edges. Grassland birds that nest in larger blocks of grasslands that are at greater distances from trees see a higher percentage of fledglings take wing. Some area-sensitive species are obligate and depend upon certain plants to successfully function within a given grassland ecosystem.

To confuse the matter even further, the total area requirements vary from species to species and can also vary amongst geographical regions and the landscapes characteristics. For example, the size of habitat patches needed to attract individuals of a given species may be smaller in landscapes that contain a larger amount of grassland and open habitats nearby. 

Management Considerations

When possible, it’s beneficial to take a community or overall landscape approach to your designing, implementation, and management plans. If you own a small grassland, it helps to determine what the surrounding landscapes look like. If other grasslands or agricultural areas are present, then it may be feasible for you to manage for grassland birds despite having smaller acreage to work with. However, if your grassland is surrounded by forest, you may want to reconsider other goals.

 The following guidelines will not necessarily guarantee the presence or absence of certain species. Restoring and enhancing existing grasslands, and reducing fragmentation are hands down the best management options for grassland birds. Whenever you increase the size of a grassland, you increase the likelihood that grassland birds will benefit.

 Some things to consider when managing for grassland birds within your landscape:

 -          To manage for edge-sensitive species, you will need a minimum of 20 acres. Moderately sensitive species need between 10 and 20 acres, and tolerant species need less than 10 acres. These estimates are the minimum amounts these species need to survive. Again, the larger the grassland, the better.

 -          Avoid fragmenting existing grassland areas. If hiking trails are to be developed, restrict activities to the edges of the area. Avoid maintaining hedgerows that may serve as predator perches.

 -          If large tracts of grassland restorations are not possible, establish several patches. Try to incorporate adjacent grassy habitats such as pastures, hayfields, and grassy waterways as connections between the grassland patches or as non-wooded, open edges.

-          Maintain succession in its earliest stages by managing for grasses and sparse shrubs. Manipulations such as burning, and mowing are required to maintain grass productivity typically within three-to-five-year intervals.

 -          Manipulate your grasslands in 1/3 to 1/4 annual rotations. If several fields are maintained, it is better to manipulate one entire field, rather than a portion of each field per rotation. This will reduce fragmentation of your grasslands. However, if you have only one field, do not manipulate the entire field at once as it will displace the grassland birds. If possible, allow some sections to lie idle each year.

 -          Use prescribed burns to increase the productivity of warm season grasses. Conduct burns in early spring (March or April) or late fall (October or November).

 -          Mow grasslands and hayfields between July 15 and August 31. This will reduce the chance of destroying bird nests and discourages the invasion of problem grass species that move in after late season mowing. Cutting height should be about 6 inches.

 -          If you use the grassland for grazing, permit only light activity by livestock, and leave some areas un-grazed by utilizing rotational grazing practices. Do not graze below 6 inches. Moderate grazing may actually benefit additional wildlife species.

 -          Plant or maintain several types of grasslands in your area. A mosaic of tall and short grass fields will provide habitat diversity. If planting only one area, a mixture of warm season grasses and forbs is best. Cool season grasses mixed with legumes is another option.

 -          Create 100 ft. shrub buffers next to forest edges and human habitations to reduce the harsh edge. An alternative to planting shrubs along the edge of a forest is to allow the fire to burn slowly into the woods so as to create a "feathered" edge. Local fire authorities should always be contacted prior to a burn to discuss permits and/or restrictions.

 -          Chemical treatments of grasslands can also be used to control woody plants. Herbicides can be used to control any type of undesirable plants in your grassland, from woody plants to grasses and weeds. Correct application is important. Damage to non-target vegetation or wildlife is possible if you do not follow the labels instructions. Reducing or eliminating the use of insecticides will provide more valuable insect food for birds.

Vernal Ponds in the Landscape

“Old dark sleepy pool...
Quick unexpected frog
Goes plop! Watersplash!”
-Bashō, Japanese Haiku

Vernal ponds are temporary wetlands that provide a vital role in our environment. Although once a common element occurring within our landscapes, most vernal ponds and larger wetlands have been claimed by society. In exchange, these ecological marvels have been replaced by endless miles of road, skyscrapers, parking lots, industrial complexes and millions upon millions of rows of Zea mays. Fortunately, the tide has shifted a bit in recent years and society has begun to show a restored interest in large wetlands and their ecology. As is the case with small, pollinator patches that most everyone can implement regardless of their lot size or budget, small “pocket ponds” can be established within the landscape at a minimal cost and effort. When designed and constructed properly, a vernal pond will look and function just like their naturally occurring counterparts.

A Landscapes Kidneys

Historically, vernal ponds and larger wetlands were formed by the ebb and flow of overflowing rivers, large lakes, and vast oceans. Others were created by natural weather events such as earthquakes, lightning induced fire, and chemical reactions that occurred within the soil. In most cases vernal ponds are shallow, temporary, and are separate from streams and rivers. Because of this, most were drained and filled during the agrarian boom of the late 19th century with advancements in farming techniques and the introduction of mechanized machinery. This backfilling of wetlands continued into modern times as monoculture farming encroached upon countless acres to meet the demands of an ever-growing population that called for more and more food. Larger vernal ponds, because of their size and ability to hold water, were converted into permanent ponds or lakes by government entities and private landowners.

 In the continental U.S. alone, we have lost well over 50% of our historical 220 million wetland acres. Healthy wetlands serve as our landscapes “kidneys” by capturing, holding and filtering water. This “slow release” of surface water during heavy rain events allows time for the water to gradually seep into the surface thus recharging the groundwater supplies. In addition, the slow release reduces runoff, lessening soil erosion and further assists in filtering sediments, chemicals and nutrients within the soil. Research has shown that wetlands can trap at least 50% of dissolved phosphates and 70% of dissolved nitrates that are running off nearby lands before they have a chance to enter our nation’s waterways.

Other incentives to establishing vernal ponds within your landscape are that they provide protection from floods by holding excess rainwater during heavy rain events, they sequester soil carbon thus reducing greenhouse gases, they provide habitat for wildlife and assist in the recovery of rare and declining species, and they provide numerous education and recreational opportunities.

Just What is a Vernal Pond?

Vernal ponds, named for the relationship to the vernal or spring equinox, periodically dry up thus never contain fish. This drying up occurs annually; however, most vernal ponds will dry up during late summer and early fall as temperatures climb and frequent rainfall ceases. Because of the firm soil bed underneath and their ability to hold water, heavy rains may fill them at any time of the year even after they have dried up. It is the temporary aspect of these small wetlands that make them so valuable to the fauna that inhabit them. This wet-dry cycle prevents fish from becoming established, thus allowing critical breeding habitat for amphibians, crustaceans, and insects whom are permitted to function and fulfill their role in our ecosystems.

The key to designing and constructing a successful vernal pond is that it not only holds water but that it also dries up once in a while. In general, ninety (90) or more consecutive days of water are needed over the winter and spring months to allow insect and amphibian larvae to develop. A shallow wetland with a limited watershed, constructed in a sunny location is likely to dry up every year and may not provide enough time for salamander and frog larvae to develop. However, a deep wetland with a large watershed, placed in a shady location may never go dry. It is the balancing act of these core components that prove pivotal when designing and constructing these temporary water features.

A key principle that is often repeated by practitioners in the permaculture world is to be amongst your land, actively observing it for a period of 1-2 years before planning any permanent, land or structural features. This period of observation allows ample time to experience multiple weather events, seasonality, and plant phenology. Immediately after purchasing our farm in Marengo, we experienced a 100-year flood event in early spring and a 200-year event during the summer that completely washed out our roadway just before the newly constructed bridge that crossed Whiskey Run. This bridge, and the surrounding land I feel certain were studied, designed and performed by professional architects and development companies contracted by the county of Crawford. This, however, is just one example showing that despite man’s best efforts, in the end, Mother Nature will ALWAYS win!

By observing these events early on, it forced us to pump the brakes and slow our role a bit as our first inclination when we took possession was to immediately begin improving the area that runs alongside the creek. Fortunately, since that first year, we haven’t experienced any further catastrophic rain events (knocking on wood), but with the ever-changing climate, we are now thinking more rational and know that these events will unfortunately become more normal in the coming years.

Ecology & Wildlife Supported

In North America, approximately one-half of all frog and one-third of all salamander species rely on seasonal/temporary wetlands for their development. Wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus), Spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum), and Eastern Spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus holbrookii) larvae are just a few of the amphibians that can successfully mature and emerge from these fishless habitats. In addition, vernal ponds are less likely to contain saprolegnia, a fungus that is detrimental to frog, toad, and salamander eggs and is frequently present in permanent ponds. Vernal ponds also have low numbers of Eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens) who prey heavily on other amphibian eggs and larvae.

Waterfowl species such as the Wood duck (Aix sponsa) and Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) use vernal ponds extensively during their migration, consuming insects, crustaceans, and seeds that inhabit these spaces and are within close proximity. Shorebirds, like the Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularius) and Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes), search out and feed on exposed mud flats that are created as water levels drop.

Additionally, reptiles such as the Eastern Box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) and the Eastern Garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis) also use vernal ponds as feeding stations as they navigate from one area to another. Numerous bat species use vernal ponds as a source of water and feed on the insects that fly over.

Mosquito, Moscato

Concerns about increased mosquito populations are valid when considering setting up a vernal pond but allow me to ease those concerns.

Yes, mosquito larvae may be present in vernal ponds, developing from egg to adult in less than a week’s time during warmer months. Have no fear though! Salamander, dragonfly, and damselfly larvae, along with many other predatory insects species such as the Water strider (Aquarius remiges) and Backswimmer (Notonectidae), all consume large quantities of developing mosquito larvae.

Adult dragonflies and multiple species of swallows patrol the sky just above the water line during the daytime, preying heavily on the adult mosquitoes that dare make an appearance. Bats frequent these same areas during the night, feeding on mosquitoes and other flying insects. With this type of balanced system, one rarely encounters adult mosquitoes near vernal ponds as their populations are kept in check by the vast array of species that utilize them as a source of food.

You have taken the time to plan. You designed and executed your vernal pond perfectly. Now all that is left to do is to pop the cork on your favorite bottle of aged and fermented grapes, pour yourself a glass, sit back and revel in what you have created!